Compounds

When identifying the 'last content word' we have to bear in mind the existence of compounds. Most compounds in English are single-stressed, that is, the main lexical stress goes on the first element. (Alternative terms for 'single-stressed' are 'front-stressed' and 'early-stressed'.)

If a compound is to bear the nucleus, then -just as with simple words - the accent is located on the lexically stressed syllable:

Many English compounds are written as two separate words, even though the main stress is still on the first element of the compound. These are called open compounds (or two-word compounds).

It does not matter whether a single-stressed compound is written as one word, or hyphenated, or as two words. As far as intonation is concerned, it makes no difference: all single-stressed compounds behave as if they were single words. If we place the nucleus on one, it goes on the stressed syllable of the first element:

Compounds can be nested: that is, one of the elements of the compound may itself consist of more than one element. If the outer compound is single-stressed, the nucleus will still go on the first element:

Summary

To refine our tonicity rule so as to allow for compounds, we nee to change 'on the last content word' to an expression covering both simple words and compound words. Accordingly, from here on we shall refer to lexical items rather than to content words. A 'lexical item' is either a single word or a compound. Unless there is some reason for it to go elsewhere, the nucleus goes on the last lexical item in the IP.

This is the default tonicity rule: unless contrast is involved (see

-13), we place the nucleus on the last lexical item in each IP. To do this we place the nuclear accent on the lexically stressed syllable of that item. This is 'neutral' or 'unmarked' tonicity.

Open compounds vs phrase (adjective plus noun)

Open compounds can be misleading for the student of EFL because superficially a compound may look like a phrase consisting of adjective plus noun. Compare running shoes and running water. The first is an open compound, single-stressed; running is gerund (a verbal noun). The second is a phrase in which each word has its own lexical stress; running is a participle (a verbal adjective):

The last lexical item in (i) is running shoes, a single-stressed compound. the last lexical item in (ii) is water.

Unlike compounds, phrases consist of two or more lexical items. they have one lexical stress for each. The nucleus normally goes on the last of them:

Phrase such as bitter disappointment are 'double-stressed', as opposed to the single lexical stress of compounds.